Human Body Systems
Circulatory System
Heart Disease
. Heart disease includes numerous problems, many of which are related to a process called atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a condition that develops when a substance called plaque builds up in the walls of the arteries. This buildup narrows the arteries, making it harder for blood to flow through. If a blood clot forms, it can stop the blood flow. Stopping the blood flow can cause a heart attack or stroke.
A heart attack occurs when the blood flow to a part of the heart is blocked by a blood clot. If this clot cuts off the blood flow completely, the part of the heart muscle supplied by that artery begins to die. Most people survive their first heart attack and return to their normal lives to enjoy many more years of productive activity. But having a heart attack does mean you have to make some changes. The doctor will advise you of medications and lifestyle changes according to how badly the heart was damaged and what degree of heart disease caused the heart attack.
Other types of Cardiovascular Disease:
Heart failure: This doesn't mean that the heart stops beating. Heart failure, sometimes called congestive heart failure, means the heart isn't pumping blood as well as it should. The heart keeps working, but the body's need for blood and oxygen isn't being met. Heart failure can get worse if it's not treated. If your loved one has heart failure, it's very important to follow the doctor's orders.
Arrhythmia: This is an abnormal rhythm of the heart. There are several types of arrhythmias. The heart can beat too slow, too fast, or irregularly. Bradycardia is when the heart rate is less than 60 beats per minute. Tachycardia is when the heart rate is more than 100 beats per minute. An arrhythmia can affect how well the heart works. The heart may not be able to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. Learn more about arrhythmia.
Heart valve problems: When heart valves don't open enough to allow the blood to flow through as it should, it's called stenosis. When the heart valves don't close properly and allow blood to leak through, it's called regurgitation. When the valve leaflets bulge or prolapse back into the upper chamber, it’s a condition called mitral valve prolapse. When this happens, they may not close properly. This allows blood to flow backward through them. Discover more about the roles your heart valves play in healthy circulation.
. Heart disease includes numerous problems, many of which are related to a process called atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a condition that develops when a substance called plaque builds up in the walls of the arteries. This buildup narrows the arteries, making it harder for blood to flow through. If a blood clot forms, it can stop the blood flow. Stopping the blood flow can cause a heart attack or stroke.
A heart attack occurs when the blood flow to a part of the heart is blocked by a blood clot. If this clot cuts off the blood flow completely, the part of the heart muscle supplied by that artery begins to die. Most people survive their first heart attack and return to their normal lives to enjoy many more years of productive activity. But having a heart attack does mean you have to make some changes. The doctor will advise you of medications and lifestyle changes according to how badly the heart was damaged and what degree of heart disease caused the heart attack.
Other types of Cardiovascular Disease:
Heart failure: This doesn't mean that the heart stops beating. Heart failure, sometimes called congestive heart failure, means the heart isn't pumping blood as well as it should. The heart keeps working, but the body's need for blood and oxygen isn't being met. Heart failure can get worse if it's not treated. If your loved one has heart failure, it's very important to follow the doctor's orders.
Arrhythmia: This is an abnormal rhythm of the heart. There are several types of arrhythmias. The heart can beat too slow, too fast, or irregularly. Bradycardia is when the heart rate is less than 60 beats per minute. Tachycardia is when the heart rate is more than 100 beats per minute. An arrhythmia can affect how well the heart works. The heart may not be able to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. Learn more about arrhythmia.
Heart valve problems: When heart valves don't open enough to allow the blood to flow through as it should, it's called stenosis. When the heart valves don't close properly and allow blood to leak through, it's called regurgitation. When the valve leaflets bulge or prolapse back into the upper chamber, it’s a condition called mitral valve prolapse. When this happens, they may not close properly. This allows blood to flow backward through them. Discover more about the roles your heart valves play in healthy circulation.
The Digestive System
If human cells could use the food eaten in that form, there would be no need for a digestive system. The digestive system changes the food into a form that can be used by the cells and that enables the nutrients to get into the blood, so they can be transported throughout the body.
The digestive system consists of one long tube and the organs that attach to it. The organs produce digestive chemicals (enzymes and acids) that break down the nutrients into simpler forms so that absorption through the intestinal wall and into the blood stream can occur.
There are two kinds of digestion: mechanical and chemical. Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking the food into smaller pieces. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the food is chewed. Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme (amylase) that begins the breakdown of carbohydrates. (An enzyme is a protein that can catalyze certain biochemical reactions).
Food is chewed into smaller pieces. Adults have 32 specialized teeth —teeth that can grind, chew, and tear different kinds of food. The tongue is an organ consisting of skeletal muscles (voluntary muscles) that move the food around the mouth to allow for efficient mechanical digestion. Salivary glands beneath and in back of the tongue secrete the saliva that allows for easier swallowing of food and the beginning of chemical digestion.
Swallowing forces the chewed food through a tubular entrance (pharynx) to the esophagus (food tube). As food is swallowed a flap-like valve, the epiglottis, closes over the trachea (windpipe) to prevent food entering the windpipe and causing choking.
The esophagus connects the pharynx with the stomach. Contractions of the esophagus push the food through a sphincter (a ring of smooth muscle that closes off an opening in the body) and into the stomach. NOTE: The digestive system moves food along by way of peristalsis, a wavelike contraction of smooth (involuntary) muscle.
The stomach starts chemical digestion of protein. Secretions from the stomach lining consist of about two liters of hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsin, and other fluids that make up gastric fluids each day. The fluid is extremely acidic, and it helps kill bacteria and other pathogens that may have been ingested. The stomach also grinds and churns food through mechanical processes.
Nearly 7 meters in length, the small intestine is folded and curled around a small area in the abdominal cavity. The inside surfaces of the intestine are covered with projections called villi. These finger-like structures are covered in smaller projections called microvilli and work to absorb food molecules that have been broken down by the processes of chemical digestion.
The large intestine receives the material “left-over” from chemical digestion that is basically nutrient free. Only water, cellulose, and indigestible materials are left. The main job of the large intestine is to remove water from the undigested material. Water is quickly removed from the material through villi and returns to the blood stream. T
If human cells could use the food eaten in that form, there would be no need for a digestive system. The digestive system changes the food into a form that can be used by the cells and that enables the nutrients to get into the blood, so they can be transported throughout the body.
The digestive system consists of one long tube and the organs that attach to it. The organs produce digestive chemicals (enzymes and acids) that break down the nutrients into simpler forms so that absorption through the intestinal wall and into the blood stream can occur.
There are two kinds of digestion: mechanical and chemical. Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking the food into smaller pieces. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the food is chewed. Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme (amylase) that begins the breakdown of carbohydrates. (An enzyme is a protein that can catalyze certain biochemical reactions).
Food is chewed into smaller pieces. Adults have 32 specialized teeth —teeth that can grind, chew, and tear different kinds of food. The tongue is an organ consisting of skeletal muscles (voluntary muscles) that move the food around the mouth to allow for efficient mechanical digestion. Salivary glands beneath and in back of the tongue secrete the saliva that allows for easier swallowing of food and the beginning of chemical digestion.
Swallowing forces the chewed food through a tubular entrance (pharynx) to the esophagus (food tube). As food is swallowed a flap-like valve, the epiglottis, closes over the trachea (windpipe) to prevent food entering the windpipe and causing choking.
The esophagus connects the pharynx with the stomach. Contractions of the esophagus push the food through a sphincter (a ring of smooth muscle that closes off an opening in the body) and into the stomach. NOTE: The digestive system moves food along by way of peristalsis, a wavelike contraction of smooth (involuntary) muscle.
The stomach starts chemical digestion of protein. Secretions from the stomach lining consist of about two liters of hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsin, and other fluids that make up gastric fluids each day. The fluid is extremely acidic, and it helps kill bacteria and other pathogens that may have been ingested. The stomach also grinds and churns food through mechanical processes.
Nearly 7 meters in length, the small intestine is folded and curled around a small area in the abdominal cavity. The inside surfaces of the intestine are covered with projections called villi. These finger-like structures are covered in smaller projections called microvilli and work to absorb food molecules that have been broken down by the processes of chemical digestion.
The large intestine receives the material “left-over” from chemical digestion that is basically nutrient free. Only water, cellulose, and indigestible materials are left. The main job of the large intestine is to remove water from the undigested material. Water is quickly removed from the material through villi and returns to the blood stream. T
The Endocrine System
Ever dozed through science class and wondered what chemistry had to do with you? A lot! Your body produces its own chemicals and uses them to control certain functions, and the main system that coordinates these chemicals is called the endocrine system.
Although we rarely think about the endocrine system, it influences almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. The endocrine system plays a role in regulating mood, growth and development, tissue function, metabolism, and sexual function and reproductive processes.
In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body processes that happen slowly, such as cell growth. Faster processes like breathing and body movement are controlled by the nervous system. But even though the nervous system and endocrine system are separate systems, they often work together to help the body function properly.
The foundations of the endocrine system are the hormones and glands. As the body's chemical messengers, hormones transfer information and instructions from one set of cells to another. Many different hormones move through the bloodstream, but each type of hormone is designed to affect only certain cells.
A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland selects and removes materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body.
Some types of glands release their secretions in specific areas. For instance, exocrine (pronounced: EK-suh-krin) glands, such as the sweat and salivary glands, release secretions in the skin or inside the mouth. Endocrine glands, on the other hand, release more than 20 major hormones directly into the bloodstream where they can be transported to cells in other parts of the body.
When hormone levels reach a certain normal amount, the endocrine system helps the body to keep that level of hormone in the blood. For example, if the thyroid gland has secreted the right amount of thyroid hormones into the blood, the pituitary gland senses the normal levels of thyroid hormone in the bloodstream. Then the pituitary gland adjusts its release of thyrotropin, the hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
Ever dozed through science class and wondered what chemistry had to do with you? A lot! Your body produces its own chemicals and uses them to control certain functions, and the main system that coordinates these chemicals is called the endocrine system.
Although we rarely think about the endocrine system, it influences almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. The endocrine system plays a role in regulating mood, growth and development, tissue function, metabolism, and sexual function and reproductive processes.
In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body processes that happen slowly, such as cell growth. Faster processes like breathing and body movement are controlled by the nervous system. But even though the nervous system and endocrine system are separate systems, they often work together to help the body function properly.
The foundations of the endocrine system are the hormones and glands. As the body's chemical messengers, hormones transfer information and instructions from one set of cells to another. Many different hormones move through the bloodstream, but each type of hormone is designed to affect only certain cells.
A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland selects and removes materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body.
Some types of glands release their secretions in specific areas. For instance, exocrine (pronounced: EK-suh-krin) glands, such as the sweat and salivary glands, release secretions in the skin or inside the mouth. Endocrine glands, on the other hand, release more than 20 major hormones directly into the bloodstream where they can be transported to cells in other parts of the body.
When hormone levels reach a certain normal amount, the endocrine system helps the body to keep that level of hormone in the blood. For example, if the thyroid gland has secreted the right amount of thyroid hormones into the blood, the pituitary gland senses the normal levels of thyroid hormone in the bloodstream. Then the pituitary gland adjusts its release of thyrotropin, the hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
Excretory System
The Importance of Hydration
Your body hinges on water to endure. Every cell, tissue, and organ in your body needs water to work suitably. For example, your body uses water to maintain its temperature, remove waste, and lubricate joints. Water is needed for good strength and vigor.
Water is responsible for more than half of your body weight. You lose water each day when you go to the bathroom, sweat, and even when you breathe. You lose water even faster when the weather is really hot, when you are physically active, or if you have a fever. Vomiting and diarrhea can also lead to swift water loss. If you don’t replace the water you lose, you can become dehydrated.
Symptoms of dehydration include the following: little or no urine, or urine that is darker than usual, dry mouth, sleepiness or fatigue, extreme thirst, headaches, confusion, and dizziness.
You may have heard diverse recommendations for daily water intake. Most people have been told they should drink six to eight 8-ounce glasses of water each day, which is a reasonable goal. However, some people need different amounts of water to stay hydrated. Most healthy people can stay well hydrated by drinking water and other fluids whenever they feel thirsty. For some people, fewer than eight glasses may be enough. Other people may need more than eight glasses each day. If you are concerned that you are not drinking enough water, check your urine. If your urine is consistently colorless or light yellow, you are most likely staying well hydrated. Dark yellow or amber-colored urine is a sign of dehydration.
For most people, water is all that is needed to sustain good hydration. However, if you are exercise at high intensity for longer than an hour, a sports drink may be helpful. It contains carbohydrates and electrolytes that can increase your energy and help your body absorb water but choose a sports drink wisely. They are often high in calories from added sugar and may contain high levels of sodium. Also, check the serving size because one bottle may contain several servings.
Sports drinks are not the same as energy drinks. Energy drinks usually contain copious amounts of caffeine and other stimulants (for example, guarana, ginseng, or taurine) that your body doesn't need. Most of these drinks have elevated levels of added sugar. Many experts advocate that children and teens should not have energy drinks
The Importance of Hydration
Your body hinges on water to endure. Every cell, tissue, and organ in your body needs water to work suitably. For example, your body uses water to maintain its temperature, remove waste, and lubricate joints. Water is needed for good strength and vigor.
Water is responsible for more than half of your body weight. You lose water each day when you go to the bathroom, sweat, and even when you breathe. You lose water even faster when the weather is really hot, when you are physically active, or if you have a fever. Vomiting and diarrhea can also lead to swift water loss. If you don’t replace the water you lose, you can become dehydrated.
Symptoms of dehydration include the following: little or no urine, or urine that is darker than usual, dry mouth, sleepiness or fatigue, extreme thirst, headaches, confusion, and dizziness.
You may have heard diverse recommendations for daily water intake. Most people have been told they should drink six to eight 8-ounce glasses of water each day, which is a reasonable goal. However, some people need different amounts of water to stay hydrated. Most healthy people can stay well hydrated by drinking water and other fluids whenever they feel thirsty. For some people, fewer than eight glasses may be enough. Other people may need more than eight glasses each day. If you are concerned that you are not drinking enough water, check your urine. If your urine is consistently colorless or light yellow, you are most likely staying well hydrated. Dark yellow or amber-colored urine is a sign of dehydration.
For most people, water is all that is needed to sustain good hydration. However, if you are exercise at high intensity for longer than an hour, a sports drink may be helpful. It contains carbohydrates and electrolytes that can increase your energy and help your body absorb water but choose a sports drink wisely. They are often high in calories from added sugar and may contain high levels of sodium. Also, check the serving size because one bottle may contain several servings.
Sports drinks are not the same as energy drinks. Energy drinks usually contain copious amounts of caffeine and other stimulants (for example, guarana, ginseng, or taurine) that your body doesn't need. Most of these drinks have elevated levels of added sugar. Many experts advocate that children and teens should not have energy drinks
Muscular System
Fun Facts About the Muscular System .
• Muscle is a soft tissue in the body of humans and animals. Its main purpose is to produce force and motion. • Muscles are responsible for maintaining posture, physical movement (sitting, walking, eating, etc.), and movement of internal organs (such as keeping the heart pumping to circulate blood, and moving food through the digestive system).
• The word muscle is derived from the Latin term musculus, meaning "little mouse." This Latin term could be due to the shape of some muscles or because muscles contracting under the skin can look like a mouse moving under a rug.
• Tendons connect our soft contracting muscle to our hard bones. • There are around 650 skeletal muscles in the human body.
• There are three types of muscle, skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
• Skeletal muscles (or striated) are voluntary muscles that control nearly every action a person intentionally performs.
• Tendons attach the muscle to two bones across a joint, as one muscle contracts the other relaxes which moves the bones
• Smooth muscle (or visceral) is involuntary; it's not controlled by our conscious mind. It is found on the walls of many organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bladder, and blood vessels. Smooth muscles contract to move substances such as food through the organ.
• Cardiac muscle is also an involuntary muscle. It is only found in the heart and is responsible for keeping the heart pumping.
• Muscle makes up around half of the total human body weight. Muscle tissue is also around 15% denser than fat tissue.
• It takes 17 muscles in the face for us to smile and 43 muscles to frown.
• The tongue has eight muscles, so is technically not the strongest muscle in the body.
• The cardiac heart muscle does the most work of any muscle over a lifetime.
Fun Facts About the Muscular System .
• Muscle is a soft tissue in the body of humans and animals. Its main purpose is to produce force and motion. • Muscles are responsible for maintaining posture, physical movement (sitting, walking, eating, etc.), and movement of internal organs (such as keeping the heart pumping to circulate blood, and moving food through the digestive system).
• The word muscle is derived from the Latin term musculus, meaning "little mouse." This Latin term could be due to the shape of some muscles or because muscles contracting under the skin can look like a mouse moving under a rug.
• Tendons connect our soft contracting muscle to our hard bones. • There are around 650 skeletal muscles in the human body.
• There are three types of muscle, skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
• Skeletal muscles (or striated) are voluntary muscles that control nearly every action a person intentionally performs.
• Tendons attach the muscle to two bones across a joint, as one muscle contracts the other relaxes which moves the bones
• Smooth muscle (or visceral) is involuntary; it's not controlled by our conscious mind. It is found on the walls of many organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bladder, and blood vessels. Smooth muscles contract to move substances such as food through the organ.
• Cardiac muscle is also an involuntary muscle. It is only found in the heart and is responsible for keeping the heart pumping.
• Muscle makes up around half of the total human body weight. Muscle tissue is also around 15% denser than fat tissue.
• It takes 17 muscles in the face for us to smile and 43 muscles to frown.
• The tongue has eight muscles, so is technically not the strongest muscle in the body.
• The cardiac heart muscle does the most work of any muscle over a lifetime.
Nervous System
The Role of a Neurologist .
Neurologists are highly intelligent people who dedicate their lives to treating disorders of the nervous system. This medical profession requires a lot of patience, an in-depth understanding of anatomy and physiology, but also knowledge of other body systems such as the cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine and digestive systems. This is because any disease affecting these body systems may directly impact brain function and cause neurological disease.
For example, untreated high blood pressure may cause a stroke, which is a sudden loss of blood supply to a region of the brain resulting in the death of brain cells. Although initially the disease presents itself as a cardiac problem, it ends up becoming a significant neurological problem that needs to be addressed by neurologists.
Neurologists also need to have a good knowledge of infectious diseases, bacteria and antibiotics since many infections can initially affect the brain or can extend towards the brain in their evolution. Meningitis is a good example of a neurological disease that has an infectious cause. Although initially the patient may be referred to an infectious disease specialist, a neurologist may take over the case if there is a potential for severe damage to nervous functioning as a consequence of the disease.
Neurologists also treat peripheral nerve diseases, which may result in loss of muscle function, loss of tactile perception, loss of sensitivity to pain or temperature and even speech or eyesight impairment. Another major disease that is addressed by neurologists is epilepsy, and it affects almost one percent of the general population at some point during their lives.
A neurology specialist will start the investigation of a particular patient by performing a neurological exam, which involves the assessment of basic brain function, and an individual evaluation of each peripheral nerve group. This is a method of gaining a basic understanding about the location of the problem within the nervous system.
However, modern day neurologists don't have to rely solely on their talent of identifying the cause and the location of the affected region based on clinical examination only. Advanced imaging medical tools such as Computer Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) can provide a more precise picture of what is happening.
Moreover, they need to be good at solving problems and observing intricate details that will help prevent further worsening of minor health conditions.
The Role of a Neurologist .
Neurologists are highly intelligent people who dedicate their lives to treating disorders of the nervous system. This medical profession requires a lot of patience, an in-depth understanding of anatomy and physiology, but also knowledge of other body systems such as the cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine and digestive systems. This is because any disease affecting these body systems may directly impact brain function and cause neurological disease.
For example, untreated high blood pressure may cause a stroke, which is a sudden loss of blood supply to a region of the brain resulting in the death of brain cells. Although initially the disease presents itself as a cardiac problem, it ends up becoming a significant neurological problem that needs to be addressed by neurologists.
Neurologists also need to have a good knowledge of infectious diseases, bacteria and antibiotics since many infections can initially affect the brain or can extend towards the brain in their evolution. Meningitis is a good example of a neurological disease that has an infectious cause. Although initially the patient may be referred to an infectious disease specialist, a neurologist may take over the case if there is a potential for severe damage to nervous functioning as a consequence of the disease.
Neurologists also treat peripheral nerve diseases, which may result in loss of muscle function, loss of tactile perception, loss of sensitivity to pain or temperature and even speech or eyesight impairment. Another major disease that is addressed by neurologists is epilepsy, and it affects almost one percent of the general population at some point during their lives.
A neurology specialist will start the investigation of a particular patient by performing a neurological exam, which involves the assessment of basic brain function, and an individual evaluation of each peripheral nerve group. This is a method of gaining a basic understanding about the location of the problem within the nervous system.
However, modern day neurologists don't have to rely solely on their talent of identifying the cause and the location of the affected region based on clinical examination only. Advanced imaging medical tools such as Computer Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) can provide a more precise picture of what is happening.
Moreover, they need to be good at solving problems and observing intricate details that will help prevent further worsening of minor health conditions.
Respiratory System
Bronchitis
Bronchitis is a respiratory disease in which the mucus membrane in the lungs' bronchial passages becomes inflamed. As the irritated membrane swells and grows thicker, the bronchial passages narrow or shut off the tiny airways in the lungs, resulting in coughing spells that may be accompanied by phlegm and breathlessness.
The disease comes in two forms: acute (lasting from one to three weeks) and chronic (lasting at least three months of the year for two years in a row). People with asthma may also have asthmatic bronchitis, inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes.
Acute bronchitis may be responsible for a hacking cough and phlegm production that sometimes accompanies an upper respiratory infection. In most cases, the infection is viral in origin, but sometimes it's caused by bacteria. If you are otherwise in good health, the mucus membrane should return to normal after you've recovered from the initial lung infection, which usually lasts for several days. Chronic bronchitis is a serious long-term disorder that often requires regular medical treatment.
If you are a smoker and come down with acute bronchitis, it will be much harder for you to recover. Every cigarette damages the tiny hair- like structures in your lungs, called cilia, that are responsible for brushing out debris, irritants, and excess mucus.If you continue smoking, the damage to these cilia prevents them from functioning properly, thus increasing your chances of developing chronic bronchitis.
In some heavy smokers, the mucus membrane lining the airways stays inflamed, and the cilia eventually stop functioning altogether. If the lungs are congested with mucus, the lungs are then vulnerable to viral and bacterial infections, which over time distort and permanently damage the lungs' airways. This permanent condition is called COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). Your doctor can perform a breathing test, called spirometry, to see if you have developed COPD. Chronic bronchitis is one of two main types of a COPD. The other main form of COPD is emphysema. Both forms of COPD make it difficult to breathe.
Acute bronchitis is very common. The disorder often can be treated well without professional medical assistance. Chronic bronchitis needs continuing attention from a doctor.
Bronchitis
Bronchitis is a respiratory disease in which the mucus membrane in the lungs' bronchial passages becomes inflamed. As the irritated membrane swells and grows thicker, the bronchial passages narrow or shut off the tiny airways in the lungs, resulting in coughing spells that may be accompanied by phlegm and breathlessness.
The disease comes in two forms: acute (lasting from one to three weeks) and chronic (lasting at least three months of the year for two years in a row). People with asthma may also have asthmatic bronchitis, inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes.
Acute bronchitis may be responsible for a hacking cough and phlegm production that sometimes accompanies an upper respiratory infection. In most cases, the infection is viral in origin, but sometimes it's caused by bacteria. If you are otherwise in good health, the mucus membrane should return to normal after you've recovered from the initial lung infection, which usually lasts for several days. Chronic bronchitis is a serious long-term disorder that often requires regular medical treatment.
If you are a smoker and come down with acute bronchitis, it will be much harder for you to recover. Every cigarette damages the tiny hair- like structures in your lungs, called cilia, that are responsible for brushing out debris, irritants, and excess mucus.If you continue smoking, the damage to these cilia prevents them from functioning properly, thus increasing your chances of developing chronic bronchitis.
In some heavy smokers, the mucus membrane lining the airways stays inflamed, and the cilia eventually stop functioning altogether. If the lungs are congested with mucus, the lungs are then vulnerable to viral and bacterial infections, which over time distort and permanently damage the lungs' airways. This permanent condition is called COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). Your doctor can perform a breathing test, called spirometry, to see if you have developed COPD. Chronic bronchitis is one of two main types of a COPD. The other main form of COPD is emphysema. Both forms of COPD make it difficult to breathe.
Acute bronchitis is very common. The disorder often can be treated well without professional medical assistance. Chronic bronchitis needs continuing attention from a doctor.
Skeletal System
The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of tendons, ligaments, and cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital functions such as support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage, and endocrine regulation that enable us to survive.
The skeletons of adult males and females have some variation, primarily to accommodate childbirth. The female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger. A male's pelvis has an angle of about 90 degrees or less, whereas a female's is 100 degrees or more.
While they become brittle when outside of the body, bones are very much alive inside the body, being fed by a network of blood vessels from the circulatory system and nerves from the nervous system.
A typical bone has a dense and tough outer layer. Next is a layer of spongy bone, which lighter and slightly flexible. In the middle of some bones is jelly-like bone marrow, where new cells are constantly being produced for blood.
Teeth are considered part of the skeletal system, but they are not counted as bones. Teeth are made of dentin and enamel, which is strongest substance in your body. Teeth also play a key role in the digestive system.
The skeletal system has two distinctive parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton, with a total of 80 bones, consists of the vertebral column, the rib cage and the skull.
The axial skeleton transmits the weight from the head, the trunk and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints, which help humans maintain our upright posture.
The appendicular skeleton has a total of 126 bones, and is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make walking, running, and other movement possible and to protect the major organs responsible for digestion, excretion, and reproduction.
The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of tendons, ligaments, and cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital functions such as support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage, and endocrine regulation that enable us to survive.
The skeletons of adult males and females have some variation, primarily to accommodate childbirth. The female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger. A male's pelvis has an angle of about 90 degrees or less, whereas a female's is 100 degrees or more.
While they become brittle when outside of the body, bones are very much alive inside the body, being fed by a network of blood vessels from the circulatory system and nerves from the nervous system.
A typical bone has a dense and tough outer layer. Next is a layer of spongy bone, which lighter and slightly flexible. In the middle of some bones is jelly-like bone marrow, where new cells are constantly being produced for blood.
Teeth are considered part of the skeletal system, but they are not counted as bones. Teeth are made of dentin and enamel, which is strongest substance in your body. Teeth also play a key role in the digestive system.
The skeletal system has two distinctive parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton, with a total of 80 bones, consists of the vertebral column, the rib cage and the skull.
The axial skeleton transmits the weight from the head, the trunk and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints, which help humans maintain our upright posture.
The appendicular skeleton has a total of 126 bones, and is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make walking, running, and other movement possible and to protect the major organs responsible for digestion, excretion, and reproduction.
Immune and Lymphatic Systems
Assessment
Choose 8 of the following questions and answer them neatly and completely using full sentences. Try the bonus after we complete "Forensics Science Blood Typing " lab on Monday 5/13. Finished questions due Wednesday 5/15
Bonus :
Blood Test Results
Choose 8 of the following questions and answer them neatly and completely using full sentences. Try the bonus after we complete "Forensics Science Blood Typing " lab on Monday 5/13. Finished questions due Wednesday 5/15
- You are a white blood cell circulating through the body of the average human. Use your imagination to explain the body’s reaction to a wound in the skin or an infection of a healing wound from your point of view. Include your role before, during and after the event.
- You are a red blood cell circulating through the body of the average human. Use your imagination to write up a job description that might appear in the classified section of a newspaper recruiting new red blood cells.
- You have often heard the old adage, “You are what you eat.” …but could this saying be true. Write a brief compare and contrast essay supporting both sides of this concept. First explain how you could possibly be a product of what you eat. Next explain how this statement is clearly untrue and has no basis.
- How is the process of digestion different in a person who has had a gastric bypass? Write an informational sheet, such as those offered by doctors to their patients, explaining the dietary changes that will impact those recovering from this radical surgery. Explain changes in meal sizes and frequency, absorption of nutrients and problems that could lead to malnutrition.
- Many schools in the United States require that children receive vaccinations for certain diseases before they begin school. In fact, this is a hot topic of debate now with the measles epidemic spreading through the U.S. and Europe. What is your standpoint on vaccinations? Do you think it is better to vaccinate people or to wait until they build a natural immunity on their own? Write a persuasive paragraph including three facts that support your viewpoint
- If your hands had no joints, how would this affect you? What if it were your feet? Give full explanations.
- How can you tell whether a muscle is voluntary or involuntary? Be specific and provide examples.
- Baby’s bones are somewhat flexible compared to adults—can you provide two explanations of this phenomenon?
- Your home is made of many systems that provide for your comfort and ease of living. Your skin is also quite multifunctional. Compare and contrast your skin to at least two of the “systems” within your home.
- Many people suffer renal (kidney) failure and must undergo dialysis several times a week. Why is this so critical?
- Your body responds reflexively to many “startling” stimuli. Why are reflexes so important? Give two specific examples of problems/injuries that could occur if you suffer from slow reflexes.
- If you had to do without one of the senses in your body, which would you miss least? Why?
- You have three different types of neurons in your body—sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons. Can you compare an historical event by labeling participants in this event as the neuron types above? Try a comic book or storyboard format.
- Describe the path of one oxygen molecule in the air as it goes from the environment to a cell in your toe.
- Explain how the Respiratory and Digestive Systems are dependent upon the Circulatory System.
- What causes a hiccup, sneeze, and cough?
- Explain how hormones promote homeostasis in the body.
Bonus :
Blood Test Results
The Baby Exchange: Two Mothers took their babies home from the hospital on the same day. On the first day home, when mother number one was removing the hospital tag from her baby, she discovered that the other mother’s name was on the tag. The other mother was contacted, but she was sure that she had the right baby. She did not want to give up the baby she had brought home from the hospital. Because the identity of the babies was disputed, the issue had to be decided in court. Analyze the data provided in the table and apply the laws of inheritance to solve the problem.
What blood type(s) could the children of parent set number one have? How about the children of parent set number two? Should the babies be exchanged? Explain your answer.
What blood type(s) could the children of parent set number one have? How about the children of parent set number two? Should the babies be exchanged? Explain your answer.